1919 – Khilafat Movement

After World War I, the Ottoman Empire faced dismemberment. Under the leadership of Ali Brothers, Maulana Muhammad Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali, the Muslims of South Asia launched historic Khilafat Movement to try and save it. Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi linked the issue of Swaraj with the Khilafat issue to associate Hindus with the movement. The ensuing movement was first countrywide popular movement.
The general impression among Muslims of India was that the western powers were waging a war against Islam throughout the world in order to rob it of all its power and influence. The Ottoman Empire was the only Muslim power that had maintained a semblance of authority and Muslims of India wanted to save Islamic political power from extinction.

1927 – Simon Commission

The British Government announced constitution of a commission under the supervision of Sir John Simon in November 1927. The commission having no Indian members was sent to investigate India’s constitutional problems and make recommendations to the Government on future constitution of India. Congress boycotted the Commission and there was a clear split in Muslim League over this issue.

1928 – Nehru Report

After the failure of Simon Commission, there was no alternative for British Government but to ask the local people to frame a constitution for themselves. They knew that Congress and Muslim League were the two main parties and that they both had serious difference of opinions. When All Parties Conference met for the third time in Bombay on May 19, 1928, there was hardly any prospect of an agreed constitution. It was then decided that a small committee should be appointed to work out the details of the constitution. Motilal Nehru headed this committee.
The committee worked for three months at Allahabad and its memorandum was called the “Nehru Report”. The chairman joined hands with Hindu Mahasabha and unceremoniously quashed recent Congress acceptance of the Delhi Proposals. The Nehru Report recommended that a Declaration of Rights should be inserted in the constitution assuring the fullest liberty of conscience and religion.
The recommendations of Nehru Report went against the interests of the Muslim community. It was an attempt to serve Hindu predominance over Muslims. The Nehru Committee’s greatest blow was the rejection of separate electorates. If the report had taken into account the Delhi Proposals, the Muslims might have accepted it. But the Nehru Committee did not consider the Delhi Proposals at all while formulating their report.
The Muslims were asking for one third representation in the center while Nehru Committee gave them only one fourth representation. It is true that two demands of Muslims were considered in Nehru Report but both of them were incomplete. It was said that Sindh should be separated from Bombay but the condition of self-economy was also put forward. It demanded constitutional reforms in N.W.F.P, but Balochistan was overlooked in the report.

1929 – Fourteen Points

A positive aspect of Nehru Report was that it resulted in the unity of divided Muslim groups. In a meeting of the council of All India Muslim League on March 28, 1929 members of both the Shafi League and Jinnah League participated. Quaid-e-Azam termed Nehru Report as a Hindu document, but considered simply rejecting the report as insufficient. He decided to give an alternative Muslim agenda. It was in this meeting that Quaid-e-Azam presented his famous “Fourteen Points”. The council of All India Muslim League accepted fourteen points of Quaid. A resolution was passed according to which no scheme for the future constitution of Government of India would be acceptable to Muslims unless and until it included the demands of Quaid presented in the fourteen points.

1930 – Allahabad Muslim League Annual Conference

Allama Muhammad Iqbal gave the most lucid explanation of the inner feelings of Muslim community in his address to All India Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930. Allama Muhammad Iqbal was a poet, philosopher and thinker who had gained countrywide fame and recognition by 1930. In his address, Allama Iqbal explained that Islam was the major formative factor in the life history of Indian Muslims. It furnished those basic emotions and loyalties, which gradually unify scattered individuals and groups and finally transform them into a well-defined people, possessing a moral consciousness of their own.

1930 to 1933 – Round Table Conferences

The first session of the conference opened in London on November 12, 1930. All parties were present except for Congress, whose leaders were in jail due to Civil Disobedience Movement. Congress leaders stated that they would have nothing to do with further constitutional discussion unless Nehru Report was enforced in its entirety as the constitution of India.
The Muslim-Hindu differences overcast the conference as Hindus were pushing for a powerful central government while Muslims stood for a loose federation of completely autonomous provinces. The Muslims demanded maintenance of weightage and separate electorates, Hindus their abolition. The Muslims claimed statutory majority in Punjab and Bengal, while Hindus resisted their imposition. In Punjab, the situation was complicated by inflated Sikh claims.
The conference broke up on January 19, 1931 and what emerged from it was a general agreement to write safeguards for minorities into constitution and a vague desire to devise a federal system for the country.

Gandhi – Irwin Pact

After the conclusion of the First Round Table Conference, British Government realized that cooperation of the Indian National Congress was necessary for further advancement in making of Indian constitution. Thus, Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, extended an invitation to Gandhi for talks. Gandhi agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement without laying down any preconditions.
The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed on March 5, 1931. Following are the salient points of this agreement:

• The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement
• The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference
• The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress
• The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offenses not involving ….violence
• The Government would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil disobedience movement. The second session of the conference opened in London on September 7, 1931. The main task of the conference was done through two committees on federal structure and minorities. Gandhi was a member of both but he adopted a very unreasonable attitude. He claimed that he represented all India and dismissed all other Indian delegates as non-representative because they did not belong to Congress.

The communal problem represented the most difficult issue for the delegates. Gandhi again tabled Congress scheme for a settlement, a mere reproduction of Nehru Report, but all the minorities rejected it. On the concluding day, British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald appealed to Indian leaders to reach a communal settlement. Failing to do so, he said, would force the British Government would take a unilateral decision.
Quaid-e-Azam did not participate in the session of the Second Round Table Conference as he had decided to keep himself aloof from Indian politics and to practice as a professional lawyer in England.
On his return to India, Gandhi once again started Civil Disobedience Movement and was duly arrested. The third session began on November 17, 1932. It was short and unimportant. Congress was once again absent, so was Labor opposition in the British Parliament. Reports of the various committees were scrutinized. The conference ended on December 25, 1932.
The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences were embodied in a White Paper. It was published in March 1933 and debated in parliament directly afterwards, analyzed by the Joint Select Committee and after the final reading and loyal assent, the bill reached the Statute Book on July 24, 1935.

1938 – Death of Allama Iqbal

Allama Iqbal died in 1938 and was buried in front of Badshahi Mosque Lahore.

1939 – Day of Deliverance

Muslim League celebrated Day of Deliverance (Yum-i-Nijat) on December 22, 1939.

1940 – Pakistan Resolution

The twenty seventh session of All India Muslim League was held at Lahore under presidentship of Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah. The historic “Lahore Resolution, also known as “Pakistan Resolution”, was presented by Moulvi Abul Kasim Fazlul Haq, Premier of Bengal. The resolution demanded that Muslim majority areas as in north-western and eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute independent states in which the constituent units should be autonomous and sovereign.

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1. The War of Independence (1857)

• Date: 1857
• Significance: The Indian Rebellion of 1857 marked the first major resistance against British rule in India. Although it failed, it had a profound impact on Indian society, particularly on Muslims, who were blamed by the British for leading the uprising. This led to increased repression of Muslims and the dismantling of their political power.

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2. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s Loyalty to the British (Post-1857)

• Date: 1858 onwards
• Significance: After the 1857 revolt, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan worked to repair relations between the British and Muslims. He urged Muslims to remain loyal to the British to regain their lost trust. He believed that cooperation with the British was essential for the progress of Muslims.
• Works: Wrote the pamphlet “The Causes of the Indian Revolt” (Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind) in 1859, explaining the reasons for the 1857 uprising and advocating for reconciliation between Muslims and the British.

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3. Formation of the Aligarh Movement (Late 19th Century)

• Founder: Sir Syed Ahmed Khan
• Significance: The Aligarh Movement aimed to promote modern education, especially among Muslims, as Sir Syed believed education was the key to improving their socio-political conditions. The movement sought to prepare Muslims to compete with Hindus in education and administration, focusing on Western-style education and sciences.
• Major Contributions:

  • Establishment of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (1875): Sir Syed founded the MAO College in Aligarh, which later became Aligarh Muslim University. The institution played a crucial role in educating the Muslim elite and instilling political awareness.
  • Scientific Society (1864): Founded in Ghazipur, it aimed to translate modern scientific works into Urdu to spread scientific knowledge among Muslims.
  • Tehzib-ul-Akhlaq (1870): Sir Syed launched this journal to promote social and educational reforms among Muslims and to modernize their thinking.

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4. Indian National Congress Formation (1885)

• Date: December 28, 1885
• Significance: The formation of the Indian National Congress (INC) represented the beginning of organized political activity in India. While Congress sought to work for Indian rights, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advised Muslims not to join the Congress, fearing that Muslims’ interests would be sidelined by the Hindu majority in the organization.

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5. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan’s Two-Nation Theory (Late 19th Century)

• Significance: Sir Syed was one of the first leaders to express the view that Hindus and Muslims were two distinct nations with different religions, languages, cultures, and traditions. He opposed the idea of a joint Hindu-Muslim nation and advocated for separate political identities, which later evolved into the Two-Nation Theory—the ideological foundation for Pakistan.

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6. Partition of Bengal (1905)

• Date: October 16, 1905
• Significance: The British partitioned Bengal into East Bengal (with a Muslim majority) and West Bengal (with a Hindu majority). This decision was seen as a victory for Muslims as it gave them greater political representation in East Bengal. However, Hindu opposition led to the annulment of the partition in 1911.

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7. Simla Deputation (1906)

• Date: October 1, 1906
• Significance: A delegation of prominent Muslim leaders, led by Aga Khan III, met with the British Viceroy, Lord Minto, at Simla. They demanded separate electorates for Muslims to ensure fair representation in the legislative bodies. The deputation highlighted the Muslims’ growing concern about being politically marginalized by the Hindu majority.

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8. Formation of All-India Muslim League (1906)

• Date: December 30, 1906
• Place: Dacca (now Dhaka, Bangladesh)
• Significance: Following the Simla Deputation, the All-India Muslim League was formed to protect the political rights of Muslims in India. The League became the political voice of Muslims and would later play a pivotal role in the creation of Pakistan.

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9. Morley-Minto Reforms (1909)

• Date: 1909
• Significance: Also known as the Indian Councils Act of 1909, this reform introduced separate electorates for Muslims, allowing them to elect their own representatives to the legislative councils. This was a significant step in recognizing Muslims as a separate political entity in India.

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10. Annulment of the Partition of Bengal (1911)

• Date: December 12, 1911
• Significance: Under pressure from Hindu protests, the British government annulled the partition of Bengal. Muslims saw this as a betrayal by the British, further deepening the divide between Hindus and Muslims.

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11. Delhi Durbar and Shift of Capital (1911)

• Date: December 12, 1911
• Significance: During the Delhi Durbar, the British announced the shift of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi. This move was seen as part of a larger strategy to consolidate British power, but it did not impact the growing dissatisfaction among Muslims.

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12. Lucknow Pact (1916)

• Date: December 1916
• Significance: The Lucknow Pact was an agreement between the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League. It marked a rare moment of Hindu-Muslim unity against British rule, as both parties agreed on a common political agenda. The Congress, for the first time, accepted separate electorates for Muslims. However, this unity was short-lived and eventually led to increasing demands for Muslim political autonomy.

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Contributions of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (Summary)

• Rebuilding Muslim-British Relations: After 1857, Sir Syed worked tirelessly to mend relations between Muslims and the British, arguing that Muslims needed to modernize and collaborate with the British to secure their future.
• Modern Education: Through the Aligarh Movement and institutions like MAO College (later Aligarh Muslim University), he focused on providing Western-style education to Muslims, especially in sciences and law, to empower them politically and economically.
• Political Vision: Sir Syed advocated for separate political identities for Muslims and Hindus, laying the foundation for the Two-Nation Theory.
• Social and Religious Reforms: He emphasized rationalism and advocated for interpreting Islam in light of modern science and reasoning. His journal Tehzib-ul-Akhlaq promoted modern thought and societal reforms.

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1857 – War of Independence

The uprising of 1857-58 became the great divide in nineteenth century South Asian history. Understated by British historians as Indian Mutiny or Sepoy Rebellion and referred to with some exaggeration by later Indian nationalists as First War of Independence, the uprising nevertheless heralded formal end of the Mughal Empire and marked the end of company rule in India as well. In general, the uprising was a reaction to British expansionism and outcome to the policies of modernization and annexation of Governor General Lord Dalhousie (1848-56), especially in Oudh (Avadh, now part of Indian state of Utter Pradesh) in 1956. The immediate spark for mutiny by sepoys (Indian soldiers employed by East India Company) was the introduction of new Enfield rifle, which had cartridge allegedly greased with cow or pig fat, tips of which had to be bitten off before loading their weapons. Both Muslim and Hindu soldiers were outraged at this offence to their religious scruples and refused to comply. British officers responded by dismissing regiment after regiment from the Bengal Army for refusing to load their weapons.

The British Parliament passed the Government of India Act of 1858, which transferred authority to British Crown, represented in India by Governor General, who thereafter also had the title of Viceroy.

1858 – Aligarh Movement

Another response was led by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) which was called Aligarh Movement after the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (now Aligarh University), which was founded in 1875 at Aligarh in north-central India. Sir Syed considered access to British education as the best means of social mobility for the sons of Muslim gentry under colonial rule.

1866 – Deoband Movement

Deoband Movement was started by Haji Muhammad Abid and Maulana Muhammad Yaqub in 1866. This further gave strength to Aligarh Movement. Deoband Madrassah started functioning in 1866 under the supervision of Muhammad Yaqub.

1867 – Urdu Hindi Controversy

During Muslim rule, Urdu emerged as the most common language of  north-western provinces of India. It was declared as official language and all official records were written in this language. In 1867, some prominent Hindus started a movement in Banaras in which they demanded replacement of Urdu with Hindi, and the Persian script with Deva Nagri script, as court language in the north-western provinces. The reason for opposing Urdu was that, the language was written in Persian script, which was similar to the Arabic script and Arabic was the language of the Quran; the Holy Book of Muslims. The movement grew quickly and within a few months spread throughout Hindu population of north-western provinces of India. The headquarters of this movement were in Allahabad. This situation provoked Muslims to come out in order to protect the importance of Urdu language. The opposition by Hindus towards Urdu language made it clear to the Muslims of the region that Hindus were not ready to tolerate the culture and traditions of Muslims.

1884 – Anjamum Himayat-i-Islam

Towards the end of 19th century, the impact of Sir Syed’s Aligarh Movement was felt all over the Subcontinent and Punjab was no exception. In March 1884, Maulana Qazi Hamid-ud-Din invited his pupil; Maulvi Ghulam Ullah Qasuri and a number of other public spirited persons to a small gathering and set up Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam. On September 22, 1884, the establishment of Anjuman was formally announced and Qazi Hamid-ud-Din was elected as its first president. Anjuman’s aim was to arrange religious and general education for girls and boys and to counter act the propaganda against Islam.

1885 – Indian National Congress was formed

Meanwhile, beginnings of the Indian nationalist movement were to be discerned in the increasing tendency to form all India associations representing various interests. English speaking Indians, predominantly middle class but from different parts of the country, were discovering efficacy of associations and public meetings in propagating their views to a winder audience and in winning the attention of British Government. In 1885 Indian National Congress was founded to formulate proposals and demands to present to British. Congress worked and helped Indian-British Rule, but it refused to do so after World War I, the idea of the territorial integrity of India and opposition to any sectarian division of India, however, always remained sacrosanct to Congress.

1891- Fall of Hunza

Hunza, remote kingdom bordering China fell into hands of British, bringing an end to the expansion of British Raj.

1893 – Durand Line Demarcated

1894 – Nadva-tul-Ulema

This institution came into existence in 1894 as a result of the efforts of some religious minded government officials; Ulema and Sufis, who wished to bring Ulema together and remove sectarian differences. The main work of this organization was the establishment of a Dar-ul-Uloom at Lucknow. For some time Shibli Nomani, Syed’s co-worker for many years, was associated with the institution. Under his influence it gained importance, but in 1914 he was forced to resign.

1898 – Sir Syed Ahmed Khan; the founder of Aligarh movement passed away. He was one of the greatest personalities of the subcontinent.

1905 – Partition of Bengal

The partition scheme was announced on September 1, 1905. The new province called Eastern Bengal and Assam, consisted of Assam and Eastern and Northern Bengal. On the area of 106,650 sq miles with a population of 31 million out of which 18 million were Muslims and 12 million were Hindus.

1906 – Demand at Simla

It was in October 1906 that a delegation of about 70 Muslims led by Agha Khan was received in the Ball Room of Viceroy’s House at Simla by Lord Minto. They asked for separate representation of Muslims in all levels of Government.

1906 – AII India Muslim League was formed

At the dawn of twentieth century, a number of factors convinced Muslims of the need, to have an effective political organization. All India Muslim League was founded by Nawab Salimullah Khan at Dhaka, mainly with the objective of safeguarding the political rights and interests of Muslims.

1916 – Lucknow Pact

The Congress – Muslim League rapprochement was achieved at Lucknow sessions of the two parties in 1916 and a joint scheme of reforms was adopted. In Lucknow Pact, as the scheme was commonly referred to, Congress accepted the principle of separate electorates and Muslims, in return for ‘weightage’ to Muslims of  minority provinces, agreed to surrender their thin majorities in Punjab and Bengal. The post Lucknow Pact period witnessed Hindu-Muslim harmony and the two parties came to hold their annual sessions in the same city and passed resolutions of identical contents.